Active for Life) and considers individual maturational level rather than chronological age (Balyi et al., 2013). LTAD is a structured pathway to optimize the development from talented children into elite athletes that consists of seven sequential stages ( 1. Impact of demographic change and secular declines in motor performance on the pool of young talents with athletic potential to be introduced to long-term athlete development.īesides its function as a marker of health, muscular fitness is an essential component of athletic performance, which is why it plays an important role during the stages of LTAD. Further, positive associations were observed between muscular fitness and bone health and self-esteem (Smith et al., 2014). ![]() From a health-related perspective, these declines are concerning because findings from a meta-analysis indicate an inverse association between muscular fitness and total and central adiposity, cardiovascular disease, and metabolic risk factors in youth (Smith et al., 2014). ( 2011) who reported 10-years secular changes in measures of muscular fitness (i.e., hand grip strength, sit-ups, bent-arm hang ) in English children aged 10–11 years. ![]() This finding was supported by Cohen et al. ( 2010) observed a secular trend in muscular endurance (i.e., bent-arm hang) over a 26-years period ranging from −16 to −49%. In Dutch children aged 9–12 years, Runhaar et al. In this context, “muscular fitness” is used as an umbrella term for “muscular strength,” “local muscular endurance,” and “muscular power” (Smith et al., 2014). Secular declines were not only reported for aerobic endurance but also for muscular fitness (Runhaar et al., 2010). Performance deteriorations were most marked in the older age groups but similar for boys and girls (Tomkinson et al., 2003). Between 19, a meta-analysis revealed rapid performance declines in aerobic endurance (i.e., 0.43% per year) of children and adolescents aged 6–19 years living in developed countries (Tomkinson et al., 2003). These findings are not limited to Germany. ![]() In addition to demographic change, secular declines in youth motor performance were reported. An almost linear decline occurred over the following decades so that in 2013, only 18% of the German population was 20 years and younger (German Federal Statistical Office, 2015). In 1950 for instance, 30% of Germany's population was under 20 years of age. The pool of youth with athletic potential to be introduced to long-term athlete development (LTAD) has become smaller in western industrialized countries due to demographic change and secular declines in motor performance (Figure (Figure1). This scoping review identified research gaps that are summarized in the following and that should be addressed in future studies: (i) to elucidate the influence of gender and biological age on the adaptive potential following RT in youth athletes (especially in females), (ii) to describe RT protocols in more detail (i.e., always report stress and strain-based parameters), and (iii) to examine neuromuscular and tendomuscular adaptations following RT in youth athletes. As youth athletes become more mature, specificity, and intensity of RT methods increase. In addition, balance training appears to be an important preparatory (facilitating) training program during all stages of LTAD but particularly during the early stages. Free weight, complex, and plyometric training appear to be well-suited to improve muscular fitness and athletic performance. ![]() In general, RT produced small-to-moderate effects on muscular fitness and athletic performance in youth athletes with muscular strength showing the largest improvement. Thus, the aims of this scoping review were (i) to describe and discuss the effects of RT on muscular fitness and athletic performance in youth athletes, (ii) to introduce a conceptual model on how to appropriately implement different types of RT within LTAD stages, and (iii) to identify research gaps from the existing literature by deducing implications for future research. However, there is a gap in the literature with regards to optimal RT methods during LTAD and how RT is linked to biological age. During the stages of long-term athlete development (LTAD), resistance training (RT) is an important means for (i) stimulating athletic development, (ii) tolerating the demands of long-term training and competition, and (iii) inducing long-term health promoting effects that are robust over time and track into adulthood.
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